Sumbangan Tamadun Islam kepada Dunia

   Orang Islam telah memberi sumbangan yang begitu besar terhadap peradaban dan tamadun manusia. Sumbangan yang paling besar ialah dan aspek agama kerana agama Islam membawa akidah, iaitu kepercayaan terhadap Allah Yang Maha Esa. Menerusi akidah, manusia bebas hidup tanpa ada sesuatu yang di­takutinya kecuali Tuhan. Akidah juga menjadi aspirasi bagi manusia untuk bekerja secara ikhlas dan jujur. Oleh sebab sifatnya sarwajagat dan tidak terbatas-batas bangsa, kaum, keturunan dan geografi menyebabkan agama Islam dapat diterima oleh semua bangsa di dunia. Inilah antara sebab agama dan tamadun Islam berkembang di seluruh dunia. Di samping itu, agama Islam juga menyediakan undang-undang dan peraturan hidup manusia yang dinamakan Undang-undang Syariat yang dilaksanakan setiap masa dan tempat. Sekiranya akidah menjadi aspirasi dan motif penggerak ke arah tamadun, maka peranan syariat itu ialah menunjuk ajar serta memberi kaedah yang jelas kepada asas pembinaan tamadun. Antara asas itu ialah ilmu, iman dan amal. Ini ditambah pula dengan aspek akhlak, iaitu asas kepada pembinaan peribadi yang luhur. Kesepaduan ketiga-ketiga aspek itu akan membentuk insan yang sem­purna yang merangkumi roh, akal dan jasad. Dengan ketibaan ajaran Islam, masyarakat Eropah tidak lagi terikat dengan kawalan atau sekatan Paus gereja Rom. Bukan sahaja mereka tidak menghormati institusi gereja, bahkan mereka menentangnya. Seruan agama secara paksaan yang selama mi diamal­kan oleh pihak gereja telah diubah kepada cara diplomasi dan damai.

   Dalam bidang falsafah dan pemikiran, daripada pengaruh Islam, orang Eropah dapat membebaskan pemikiran mereka yang selama mi dibelenggu oleh pelbagai doktrin Kristian terutama sekali hubungan manusia dengan alam. Manusia tidak lagi dipandang sebagai makhluk yang pasif lantaran dosa warisan. Demikian juga sikap mereka terhadap kehidupan di dunia, bukan lagi sesuatu yang dibenci lantaran ia merosakkan, tetapi sesuatu yang mesti diisi dengan aktiviti kehidupan yang bermakna. Perubahan sikap ini akhirnya melahirkan satu gerakan intelektual yang dikenali sebagai faham humanisme pada abad ke-13M. Tokoh-tokoh falsafah Islam yang dicontohi oleh orang Eropah ialah al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Tufayl dan Ibn Rushd. Ibn Tufayl dengan karyanya Hayy Ibn Yaqzan yang mengungkapkan bahawa manusia boleh mengenal Tuhan tanpa wahyu dan guru telah mempengaruhi pemikiran orang Eropah. Karya ini telah diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin oleh Roger Bacon dan diterbitkan bersama-sama teks Arab di Oxford pada tahun 1671. Seterusnya karya tersebut diterjemahkan ke bahasa-bahasa Eropah yang lain. Bukan se­takat menterjemah, malahan orang Eropah juga menghayatinya melalui penciptaan kisah-kisah berdasarkan idea yang dikemukakan dalam buku tersebut. Antara kisah tersebut ialah Robinson Crusoe yang dihasilkan pada abad ke­ 18M.

Begitu juga idea falsafah Ibn Rushd telah mempengaruhi ahli falsafah Eropah sejak abad ke-12M lagi. Pada abad ke-16M, falsafah Ibn Rushd, menurut Renan, telah diamalkan secara rasmi oleh golongan terpelajar di Itali.

Dalam bidang kemasyarakatan konsep keadilan, hak individu serta penyertaan rakyat memberi pendapat, memberi layanan baik terhadap tawanan pe­rang, etika peperangan seperti melindungi nyawa kanak-kanak, orang tua dan kaum wanita yang dianjurkan oleh Islam merupakan nilai baru bagi mereka. Tokoh-tokoh yang dicontohi dalam aspek keadilan sosial ialah Nabi Muhammad (saw) dan para sahabatnya termasuk Abu Bakar, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman dan ‘Ali.

Orang Eropah juga mendapat pengetahuan dalam bidang ekonomi seperti kegiatan perdagangan, perindustrian, teknologi pertanian serta sistem perairan. Teknik tanaman seperti sekoi, padi, tembikai, aprikot dan limau telah dipe­lajari daripada orang Islam. Tokoh-tokoh Islam yang dicontohi ialah Ibn Baytar dan al-Ghafiqi.

Tokoh-tokoh Islam yang terkenal dalam bidang perubatan ialah al-Razi dan al-Asrar. Al-Razi telah menghasilkan buku berjudul al-Hawi. Buku ini telah dijadikan rujukan di Eropah dalam bidang kimia. Begitu juga buku Ibn Sina berjudul al-Qanun menjadi bahan rujukan di Eropah.

Dalam bidang perkilangan, misalnya kilang membuat senjata di kota-kota besar Islam seperti Cordova dan Baghdad telah memberikan sumbangan besar kepada Eropah.

Dalam bidang matematik pula, ramai penuntut Eropah yang datang belajar ke Andalus pada zaman pemerintahan Islam. Kebanyakan mereka telah menjadi pakar dalam bidang tersebut, antaranyaAdelard dan Morley dari Britain. Adelard telah berguru dengan orang Islam dan beliau telah menterjemahkan karya al-Khawarizmi yang menulis tentang teori geometri dalam matematik dan statistik. Beliau telah menggunakan nombor Arab dalam terjemahannya. Seorang lagi tokoh matematik Eropah ialah Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa. Beliau telah mempelajari ilmu matematik dengan orang Islam di Andalus. Karya-­karya beliau antaranya Liberab’ci telah dijadikan bahan bacaan asas ahli matematik di Eropah. Begitu juga George Purbach, pakar matematik dari Vienna pada abad ke-15M banyak berpandukan kajian yang dilakukan oleh ahli matematik Islam seperti Ibn al-Zarqiyali. Beliau mahir dalam matematik rajah segi tiga.

Dalam bidang astronomi terdapat beberapa karya karangan Abu Ma’syar dan al-Khawarizmi. Karya mereka telah diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin oleh Adelard of Bath dan John of Siville. Karya al-Battani juga telah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin oleh Alfonso X. Ahli astronomi Eropah bernama Romond telah menulis karya astronominya berdasarkan karya Ibn al-Zarqiyali (Azarchel). Ibn al-Zarqiyali mahir dalam menentukan gerhana matahari dan telah mencipta sebuah kompas untuk menentukan jarak antara bulan dan bumi dan di antara bintang-bintang dan matahari. Dalam bahasa Eropah ter­dapat beberapa istilah astronomi yang dipinjam daripada bahasa Arab. Antaranya ialah alsumut dan nadir (nazir). Umat Islam juga telah berjaya mencipta kompas yang digunakan dalam pelayaran di laut. Dengan itu pelayaran di laut dan kegiatan perdagangan telah berkembang dengan lebih pesat. Muhammad bin Musa telah mencipta astrolab (jam matahari). Beliau juga mencipta sebuah alat yang dapat mengukur bulatan dunia. Pada abad ke-12M, Abu Solet telah mencipta sebuah alat yang dapat menimbulkan semula kapal yang sudah tenggelam.

Dalam bidang botani pula, umat Islam telah memberi sumbangan yang besar. Di kota-kota besar seperti Cordova, Kaherah, Baghdad dan Fez terdapat taman bunga yang cantik dan indah. Menurut Sarton, pencapaian umat Islam dalam bidang botani adalah jauh lebih hebat daripada pencapaian yang pernah diwarisi bangsa Yunani. Pada abad ke-12M, Ibn Arabi telah menulis sebuah buku tentang botani. Al-Ghafiqi dari Cordova telah menerbitkan sebuah buku tentang tumbuh-tumbuhan dan 50 jenis pohon buah-buahan. Sementara Ibn Sina turut menghasilkan sebuah buku yang mengulas tentang tumbuh­tumbuhan. Ibn al-Baytar yang berasal dan Andalus telah menyusun sebuah buku yang menyenaraikan 1400 jenis dadah yang boleh diproses daripada binatang, tumbuh-tumbuhan dan bahan galian. Karyanya yang berjudul Kitab al-Mughni fi al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah merupakan sebuah buku yang paling perpengaruh dalam bidang farmakologi. Berikutnya, karya-karya botani yang berkaitan dengan perubatan telah dihasilkan oleh para pengkaji yang tinggi di wilayah-wilayah Islam. Segala kajian itu telah membantu mengenal pasti jenis akar kayu dan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang berkhasiat dan dapat digunakan dalam bidang perubatan.

Umat Islam turut menghasilkan kain dan kertas bermutu tinggi melalui kemajuan teknologi yang mereka miliki. Dalam bidang pertanian, mereka telah membina kincir air dan kincir angin.

Dalam bidang seni muzik pula, pada abad ke-12, didapati karya-karya penting yang dihasilkan oleh orang Islam tentang muzik telah diterjemahkan ke bahasa Latin. Terjemahan ini dilakukan di Toledo. Ahli muzik Eropah, Franco of Cobogne (1190M) telah mengikut jejak al-Kindi dalam bidang seni muzik. Setelah itu muncul pula John of Garland dengan karyanya berjudul Ochetus yang mengkaji tentang nada suara yang diambil daripada kaedah nada suara muzik Arab.

Dalam bidang bahasa, sastera dan seni ukir, banyak karya bahasa dan sas­tera dalam bahasa Arab telah diterjemahkan ke bahasa-bahasa Eropah. Istilah-­istilah Arab seperti sukkar (sugar), kimia(alchemy), arsyek (cheque) dan ba­nyak lagi telah dipinjam oleh bahasa Eropah. Tidak kurang pentingnya tentang ilmu pelayaran Islam. Ramai tokoh ahli pelayaran Islam yang menjadi terkenal antaranya ialah al-Mas’udi, Ibn Jubayr dan Ibn Battutah.

Dalam bidang ketenteraan pula, taktik peperangan yang digunakan oleh tentera Islam sejak zaman Nabi Muhammad (saw) banyak mempengaruhi taktik dan strategi peperangan pada zaman moden.

Ringkasnya, banyak aspek keintelektualan Islam telah ditiru oleh bangsa Eropah sehingga melahirkan satu perubahan besar dalam sejarah tamadun di Eropah. Namun begitu, nilai-nilai murni yang terkandung dalam tamadun Islam tidak dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat Barat bagi mengukuhkan lagi ta­madun mereka, malah mereka menggantikannya dengan nilai-nilai kebendaan semata-mata. Justeru, lahirlah era penjajahan bagi mengejar harta kekayaan tanpa batas dan sempadan.

http://man999.tripod.com/Sumbangan_Islam_2.htm

Humans & Nature: The Right Relationship

Over just the last two decades, science has radically altered its view of the arrangement both of life and of nonliving components of the earth. New understandings are emerging that place relationship at the center. Biology and physics are moving away from a “reductionist” view of function, in which the activity of a living cell or an ecosystem, for example, is explained by being reduced to its parts, rather than including the relationship between those parts as essential to our understanding. Today scientists are admitting that this three-hundred-year-old scientific doctrine is far too simplistic, and are finding that physical substances work and exist in terms of highly complex, interdependent, and changeable contexts and relationships. So, for example, the relationships between genes in the human body, rather than only their individual functions, are the key to the countless ways that human genes can produce genetic traits and characteristics. We are now learning that relationship is the key to the survival of our species on the social and political level, as well. This essay is about relationship writ large, and about how to move to right relationship from wrong relationship in our individual and collective economic lives.

A quick story of one set of relationships operating on our planet helps illustrate this more sophisticated scientific understanding. In its natural state, oil, created over eons from organic matter by volcanic heat and compression, is found almost entirely within the earth’s crust; that is its natural relationship with the planet. By the same token, most forms of life can only exist within the biosphere; the thin membrane of plants, animals, and microorganisms and their life support systems at or near the earth’s surface constitutes habitat for virtually all life. Life on earth also exists in a spatial relationship to the atmosphere, which must contain gases also arranged in a particular relationship—not too much carbon dioxide, plenty of nitrogen and oxygen, only minute amounts of other gases. Finally, all life forms need access to a highly particular relationship between only two simple and very plentiful gases: hydrogen and oxygen. Water, so necessary to life, is in fact a relationship between those two gases. It is also found primarily on top of the earth’s crust or only a short distance beneath it or in the atmosphere above it.

These relationships can equally easily be discerned to be “wrong” if the spatial configuration of each component is seriously disturbed, just as a gene sequence cannot express itself if it does not have the necessary position in the genome and the necessary relationship with certain proteins.

Right now, one of the largest industrial projects in the planet’s history is located in western Canada. Development of the Alberta tar sands is a massive attempt to alter the relationships of the substances normally found below the earth with those on it. In this case, oil is brought from beneath the crust along with the sand it permeates and placed in relationship to the ecosystems found on the surface: forests, rivers, wetlands, and lakes. Once on the surface, the oil enters into a relatively permanent set of new relationships with air and water, both in Alberta where it is mined, and also when it is used in vehicles and heating plants in the chain of refineries and users that spread out from it, as far west as China and as far south as Texas. The immense Athabaska River, adapted over millennia and nourishing the boreal forest, enters into a long-term new set of relationships, too. To flush oil from the sands, the river is drained, boiled, forced through the oil-drenched sands, and then deposited in enormous tailing ponds, where the oil’s poisonous hydrocarbons are supposed to “settle.” The life-giving water of the Athabaska is removed from any use by life forms ever again, barring the discovery of some new, extraordinary technology.
This alteration of relationships transforms the thousands of square miles devoted to tar sands development into a huge, toxic graveyard of former life, with a stench of sulfur and hot asphalt that can be smelled from far away. The surface of the earth is stripped of all animal or plant habitat. In the surrounding area, pus-filled boils, cancers, and other lethal diseases and birth defects in the fish, animal, and human population are now being documented.

But not only are ecological relationships affected. Tar sands development also affects social relationships among people. Tens of thousands of workers have migrated to the few towns and many work camps on the site. The crime rate in the towns and cities most affected, Fort McMurray and Fort Chipewayan, and Edmonton and Calgary, has risen, as have homelessness, the cost of living, and prostitution. Human casualties from drug use, alcohol, highway accidents, and the rigors of shift work on a frontier are also escalating.

And these are only the impacts at the beginning of the chain. Once shipped from Alberta, tar sands oil will power air conditioners in deserts, furnaces in the Arctic, and many cars, trucks, and jets. It will serve as the raw material for a vast array of synthetic chemicals and fertilizers. This single industrial project even affects Canada’s international relationships, as it makes the nation’s compliance with emissions reductions in the Kyoto Protocol virtually impossible. Demand for Alberta’s oil will be driven by an international economy that is racing ahead in pursuit of endless growth and wealth accumulation.

Alberta tar sands development, along with many other modern industrial developments such as the Three Gorges dam in China or even the war in Iraq, are clear examples of “wrong relationship.”

In this essay we expand the term “right relationship” from its early Quaker use to give it a more universal meaning that includes contemporary science and has roots in diverse cultural and religious traditions. Right relationship provides a guiding ethic for people wishing to lead fulfilling lives as creative and integrated participants in human society and the commonwealth of life as a whole. It is akin to what some would call “sustainability,” though it goes much deeper. Right relationship offers a guidance system for functioning in harmony with scientific reality and enduring ethical traditions.

In the 1940s, conservation biologist Aldo Leopold, reflecting on what he had come to see as the next stage in human moral development, created a useful definition of right relationship. When working out what he called the land ethic, he explained that “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.” Many volumes have since been written on the philosophy of ecology, but this simple statement has become the touchstone of the ecological worldview. Leopold’s ethic gains strength when enhanced with affirmations of the inherent value of human and other life, as exemplified in Albert Schweitzer’s powerful idea of “reverence for life.”

Replacing the term “stability” with “resilience” reflects the current scientific understanding of relationships. Leopold’s ethic applies, as well, to the integrity, resilience, and beauty of human communities. How the ethic is understood in practice depends, of course, on the type of community. Hence, with only one alteration, his ethic becomes a practical guide for differentiating between right and wrong relationship both in human society and in the entire community of life of which humans are a part: “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, resilience, and beauty of the commonwealth of life. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.”

It is quite possible to choose right relationships and the common good. Many individuals are already doing so, as are many communities and a few societies. The problem the world is currently facing, however, is that in most of our modern societies the majority of people are actively urged, even forced, to choose wrong relationships, such as those typified by the Alberta tar sands project. Greed and the constant stimulation of new desires that feed it, until quite recently regarded in most societies as sinful or at least unpleasant, have increasingly become acceptable, even glorified. Simultaneously, modern industrial activity has embraced a pathological gigantism, increasing corporate consolidations and ruthlessly crushing the small-business players, as well as the natural systems on which all economic activity depends. In short, a pursuit of wrong relationships is the prevailing trend of our times. The signs are now well known: climate change, overpopulation, loss of topsoil and fresh water, increasing rates of species extinction, deforestation, imperiled coral reefs, unstoppable invasive species, toxic chemicals that remain for eons in the environment, persistent human poverty and hunger, and an increasingly inflated, unstable world financial system and globalizing economy. And we only begin the list.

Right relationship with life and the world is both a personal and a collective choice, but it is a choice that we must make. It can support and inspire people struggling to find a foundational base for the development of productive societies and a healthy human–earth relationship. Opting for healthy human and ecological communities is a decision we can make that will require us to find new ways to live and to run our economies. Of course, “right relationship” is simply another way of expressing similar precepts found in many of the world’s religious and spiritual traditions. The reductionist science of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries transformed ethical ideas by removing, for many people, their theological foundations. Now, the relationship science of the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries is beginning to change human perceptions of reality, particularly in terms of human duties to the other life forms with which we share life’s prospect.

http://www.humansandnature.org